Black and White Photography

A star filter produces streaks of light that appear to emanate from bright
highlights within the image. The effects assume various shapes and levels of
exaggeration, depending on the type of star filter you use.
Exposure and Filters
Except for lens-protecting filters, most filters block some of the light that would
otherwise pass through the lens and reach the film. Thus, when using most
filters you will need to add exposure to compensate. This means setting a larger
lens aperture opening and/or a slower shutter speed.
Fortunately, with most modern cameras, TTL meters automatically compensate
for such light reduction because they measure light after it has traveled
through the filter. If you use a camera without TTL metering or a handheld meter,
however, you will have to do the calculations manually, using a filter factor.
Filter factors may be indicated on the rim of glass filters or in package instructions.
Otherwise you will have to contact the filter manufacturer or refer
to charts such as the one below. The manufacturers’ information will be most
reliable because similar filters from different companies may have slightly different
factors.
A filter factor is expressed as a number followed by X, such as 2X. You will
need to increase exposure by one stop for every factor of 2. For example, if
your yellow filter has a 2X factor, you will need to give your film one stop more
exposure, so if the meter suggests f/8 at 1/250, use f/5.6 at 1/250, f/8 at 1/125,
or the equivalent instead; with a green filter (4X), you will need to give your
film two stops more exposure—f/4 at 1/250, f/8 at 1/60, or the equivalent.
Filter Factor Exposure Adjustment Required
1.2X          +1/3 stop
1.5X          +2/3 stop
2X             +1 stop
4X             +2 stops
8X             +3 stops
16X           +4 stops
Here are typical filter factors for common black-and-white filters. Note that
they can vary widely with the density of the color and the manufacturer.
Filter Filter Factor
UV, skylight none
yellow      2X
green       4X
orange     2.5X
red          8X
polarizing 2.5X

Most of the time, your camera will allow you to focus as close to your subject
as you’d like. But if you want to get even closer, you may need additional
equipment. Specific cameras and lenses vary, but lenses made for 35mm SLRs
usually allow you to focus no closer than 12" to 15" away, and often farther
with longer focal lengths. You can usually focus quite close up with a view
camera, but you can’t easily focus very close with snapshot, rangefinder, and
twin-lens-reflex models—all cameras that don’t offer viewing and focusing
through a single lens.
If you want to focus very close up with your 35mm SLR, you will probably
need a macro lens, supplementary close-up lens, extension tube, or extension
bellows—all of which are described below. Regardless of your equipment, use
a tripod to hold the camera steady whenever possible, because any camera
shake or vibration will show more than if the subject were shot from a greater
distance.
Keep in mind that close-up photographs have an inherently shallow depth of
field. Set the smallest possible lens aperture to maximize depth of field. You
might consider using a fast film and/or a slow shutter speed (definitely with the
camera on a tripod), both of which allow you to close down your lens aperture
for increased depth of field.
Macro lens. A macro lens looks and acts much like any other lens, except it
allows you to focus more closely. It’s arguably the best close-up option for a
number of reasons, including its ability to focus at any distance—from inches
away to infinity. With the other close-up options, you can focus only at limited
close ranges.
Some so-called macro lenses allow you to focus closer than a normal lens,
but with a true macro lens you can usually focus as close as an inch or two
away from your subject. Expect to pay more for a macro lens. They are available
in a variety of focal lengths, including zoom models, but most true macros
are fixed-focal-length lenses—usually normal (50–60mm) and moderate telephoto
(90–105mm).
Supplementary close-up lenses. A supplementary close-up lens is a clear, magnifying
lens, placed in front of the camera lens, like a filter, that allows you to
focus close to your subject. Close-up lenses are rated according to their close
focusing capability. A +1 close-up lens allows you to focus up close; a +2 allows
you to focus even closer; and so forth. Choices typically range from +1 to +5.
When using a close-up lens, you can focus only at a specified range of
distances—not closer and not farther away. (That range should be noted in the
instructions packaged with the close-up lens.) This is a significant difference
between a close-up lens and a macro lens, which you can focus at any distance.

Supplementary close-up lenses are the least expensive close-up option. They
are typically sold individually and in sets of three, sized according to the diameter
of the lens (such as 52mm, 55mm, and so forth)—the same as filters.
Extension tube. An extension tube is literally a tube-shaped accessory that fits
between the lens and the camera body, increasing the distance between lens and
film to allow closer focusing. To use an extension tube, attach one end to your
camera body and the other end to the back of your lens. Place the camera, tube,
and lens on a tripod, then focus on the subject. If you can’t get the subject in
focus, use a different extension tube. As with close-up lenses, you can only
focus at the close distances specified in the instruction material that comes with
the tubes, not closer and not farther away.
Extension bellows. An extension bellows is an accordion-like cardboard or
cloth tube mounted on an adjustable rail. Like an extension tube, it fits between
the lens and the camera body, increasing the distance between lens and
film for closer focus.
To use an extension bellows, attach one end to your camera body and the
other end to your lens. Place the camera, bellows, and lens on a tripod; the
tripod typically attaches to a hole in the bottom of the bellows rail. Then focus
on the subject, using a knob on the bellows. You can only focus at close
distances with a bellows—not further away.
There are many other useful accessories available for your camera. You are
already familiar with some of the most common ones, such as extra lenses,
handheld light meters, and flash and other lighting equipment. Following are a
few more.
Cases and bags. There is a wide variety of cases and bags for protecting and
carrying camera equipment. Fitted cases that come with many cameras offer
excellent protection, but often have to be removed in order to load and unload
film, which can be annoying if you use several rolls of film in a single session.
One good substitute for a fitted case is a camera wrap, a soft, padded cloth
used to cover a camera, accessory lens, flash, or any other piece of equipment.
The cloth has Velcro to keep it tightly attached, and wraps and unwraps easily.
You also should have a camera bag to hold your camera (with or without a
fitted case or wrap), lenses, film, and other accessories. There are many models
available, varying in style and rigidity. The best camera bags should be just big
enough to carry the equipment you typically need—or maybe a little bigger for
when you add equipment in the future. Buy a sturdy model that’s well padded,