Black and White Photography

Graded papers do not work with filters. Instead, each sheet of paper produces
a single grade of contrast; if you want to change contrast, you have to
switch to a different package of paper. For example, if you want higher contrast,
use a #3 paper. For lower contrast, use a #1 paper. This method is less
convenient than using variable-contrast paper because you have to buy a separate
package of paper for each desired contrast grade; it also doesn’t allow you
to fine-tune the contrast quite as much since graded papers don’t allow fractional
grade changes the way variable-contrast papers do.
The range of available contrast with graded papers is more limited than with
variable-contrast papers, as many companies offer only grades #2, #3, or #4.
You will be able to make a good print with a well-exposed and well-developed
negative using graded papers, but with poor negatives you may need the wider
range of contrasts that variable-contrast papers offer.
Many advanced photographers prefer graded papers for their quality, despite
their limitations and their relatively high cost. For instance, many graded
papers are premium quality, offering exceptionally rich tonality—a very broad
range of grays and unusually deep blacks.
Making a print requires a variety of judgments and interpretations, much more
so than developing film. Following are basic printing steps and discussions of
the key judgment areas. Note that you may want to make contact prints the
same size as your negatives before deciding which images to print.
Part I: Setting Up the Chemicals
Set up four trays for the printing process: one each for developer, stop bath,
fixer—all similar to the chemicals you use for processing film—and a holding
bath, plain water used to hold prints until they are ready for washing.
It’s best to put all the trays in a sink; this way if you spill the solutions you
can clean them up more easily. They also will be less likely to leave stains. If you
don’t have a large enough sink, designate a counter, or a section of a counter,
as a wet area and keep all solutions there and away from your negatives, the
enlarger, and other equipment.
Position the trays in a line, and always work in the same direction, so you
won’t mix up the chemicals when you’re working. Most photographers work
toward the faucet, so the last tray (the holding bath) has running water available.
(If your darkroom does not have running water, work left to right—from
developer to holding bath.)
You will need a different type of developer for prints than for film. Though
film and print developers both develop the image and share some of the same
ingredients, they are formulated differently.

Stop bath is generally mixed the same way for paper as for film, but some

fixers are mixed at different dilutions, depending on the brand. Check the instructions

that come with the fixer for specifics, but chances are you will need a

less concentrated fixer for prints than for film, especially if you use a rapid fixer.

You don’t always need a hardener in the fixer when processing prints. Using

a hardener may help a little to protect the paper emulsion, especially if you are

going to heat dry your prints. But with air-dried prints it increases the likelihood

of curling—and it also may reduce the effectiveness of print washing and

toning.

As part of the final wash, you will need a fixer remover only if you make

fiber-based prints. RC prints don’t need fixer remover because they wash more

easily and quickly, due to the paper’s plastic coating which keeps fixer from

soaking deep into the paper fibers.

You should fill processing trays to at least half capacity. An 8" x 10" tray

needs about 32 ounces of solution; an 11" x 14" tray needs about 64 ounces;

and a 16" x 20" tray needs about 1 gallon. If you’re making only a few prints,

you can use less solution to save money; if you’re making a lot of prints, use

more so you won’t have to keep changing solutions as the chemicals get used up.

It’s difficult to control the temperature of solutions in trays. They eventually

reach room temperature, because they sit there for hours at a time. Fortunately,

you can process prints successfully within a wide range of solution tempera-tures. Try to stay around 68–72°F, however. If necessary, turn up the heat or air

conditioning to change the room temperature. Cooler temperatures may result

in slow and possibly incomplete processing, and warmer temperatures may

result in processing times that are too short; hot solution temperatures could

physically damage a print, especially the plastic coating of RC papers.

Prints are rarely washed individually. Instead, you keep several prints in the

holding bath until you are ready to wash them all at once. If the holding bath

doesn’t have running water, change the water in the tray every 15–30 minutes

or so to prevent too much fixer from accumulating and causing prints to be

overfixed. Overfixing could cause image bleaching and make the print difficult

to wash thoroughly.

Part II: Setting Up the Image

You first need to place the negative in the enlarger and prepare it for printing.

Follow these steps:

1. Place a strip of negatives in the negative carrier, emulsion side down, with the

negative frame to be printed centered in the opening of the negative carrier.

The emulsion is the dull surface of the film. When held with the emulsion

side down, text and numbers on the edge of the film will read correctly and

the image will appear in the same orientation as it did when you shot it; if

the negative is positioned emulsion side up, the resulting print will be laterally

flipped (reversed left to right). Handle negatives only by the edges, as

they smudge and scratch easily.

2. Clean dust or other loose grit off the negative, using canned air or another

type of blower or a brush. Be careful that you don’t accidentally scratch or

otherwise damage the negative when cleaning it.

3. Close the negative carrier and fit it tightly in place in the enlarger head.

4. Set the easel to the desired image size. For most prints, you will want a white

border, so the actual image size will be smaller than the size of the paper. If

you want to print the full frame of a 35mm negative on an 8" x 10" sheet

of paper, for example, you can set the image size on the easel for 6" x 9" or

another size that matches the 35mm dimensions (about 1" x 11⁄2").

Easels are constructed differently, but almost all have size scales, usually

on the top, bottom, and/or sides. Using the scales, you position the blades

of the easel to set the image dimensions. A very few easels are nonadjustable

for a single, standard image size.

5. Place the easel on the base of the enlarger, centered below the lens.

6. Turn on the safelight, if you haven’t done so. Some models take a few minutes

to warm up.